Prescribed Burning for Brush Management

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An arborist, or (less commonly) arboriculturist, is a professional in the practice of arboriculture, which is the cultivation, management, and study of individual trees, shrubs, vines, and other perennial woody plants in dendrology and horticulture.^{[citation needed]}

Arborists generally focus on the health and safety of individual plants and trees, rather than managing forests or harvesting wood (silviculture or forestry). An arborist's scope of work is therefore distinct from that of either a forester or a logger.^{[citation needed]}

In order for arborists to work near power wires, either additional training is required or they need to be certified as a Qualified Line Clearance Arborist or Utility Arborist (there may be different terminology for various countries). There is a variety of minimum distances that must be kept from power wires depending on voltage, however the common distance for low voltage lines in urban settings is 10 feet (about 3 metres).^[1]

Arborists who climb (as not all do) can use a variety of techniques to ascend into the tree. The least invasive, and most popular technique used is to ascend on rope. There are two common methods of climbing, Stationary Rope System (SRS) and Moving Rope System (MRS). When personal safety is an issue, or the tree is being removed, arborists may use 'spikes', (also known as 'gaffs' or 'spurs') attached to their chainsaw boots with straps to ascend and work. Spikes wound the tree, leaving small holes where each step has been.^{[citation needed]}

An arborist's work may involve very large and complex trees, or ecological communities and their abiotic components in the context of the landscape ecosystem. These may require monitoring and treatment to ensure they are healthy, safe, and suitable to property owners or community standards. This work may include some or all of the following: planting; transplanting; pruning; structural support; preventing, or diagnosing and treating phytopathology or parasitism; preventing or interrupting grazing or predation; installing lightning protection; and removing vegetation deemed as hazardous, an invasive species, a disease vector, or a weed.^{[citation needed]}

Arborists may also plan, consult, write reports and give legal testimony. While some aspects of this work are done on the ground or in an office, much of it is done by arborists who perform tree services and who climb the trees with ropes, harnesses and other equipment. Lifts and cranes may be used too. The work of all arborists is not the same. Some may just provide a consulting service; others may perform climbing, pruning and planting: whilst others may provide a combination of all of these services.^[2]

Arborists gain qualifications to practice arboriculture in a variety of ways and some arborists are more qualified than others. Experience working safely and effectively in and around trees is essential. Arborists tend to specialize in one or more disciplines of arboriculture, such as diagnosis and treatment of pests, diseases and nutritional deficiencies in trees, climbing and pruning, cabling and lightning protection, or consultation and report writing. All these disciplines are related to one another and some arborists are very well experienced in all areas of tree work, however not all arborists have the training or experience to properly practice every discipline.^{[citation needed]}

Arborists choose to pursue formal certification, which is available in some countries and varies somewhat by location. An arborist who holds certification in one or more disciplines may be expected to participate in rigorous continuing education requirements to ensure constant improvement of skills and techniques.^{[citation needed]}

In Australia, arboricultural education and training are streamlined countrywide through a multi-disciplinary vocational education, training, and qualification authority called the Australian Qualifications Framework, which offers varying levels of professional qualification. Government institutions including Technical and Further Education (TAFE) offer Certificate III or a diploma in arboriculture as well as some universities.^[3][4] There are also many private institutions covering similar educational framework in each state. Recognition of prior learning is also an option for practicing arborists with 10 or more years of experience with no prior formal training. It allows them to be assessed and fast track their certification.^{[citation needed]}

In France, a qualified arborist must hold a Management of Ornamental Trees certificate, and a qualified arborist climber must hold a Pruning and Care of Trees certificate; both delivered by the French Ministry of Agriculture.^[5][6]

In the UK, an arborist can gain qualifications up to and including a master's degree. College-based courses include further education qualifications, such as national certificate, national diploma, while higher education courses in arboriculture include foundation degree, bachelor's degree and master's degree.^{[citation needed]}

In the US, a Certified Arborist (CA) is a professional who has over three years of documented and verified experience and has passed a rigorous written test from the International Society of Arboriculture. Other designations include Municipal Specialist, Utility Specialist and Board Certified Master Arborist (BCMA). The USA and Canada additionally have college-based training which, if passed, will give the certificate of Qualified Arborist. The Qualified Arborist can then be used to offset partial experience towards the Certified Arborist.

Tree Risk Assessment Qualified credential (TRAQ), designed by the International Society of Arboriculture, was launched in 2013. At that time people holding the TRACE credential were transferred over to the TRAQ credential.^{[citation needed]}

In Canada, there are provincially governed apprenticeship programs that allow arborists' to work near power lines upon completion. These apprenticeship programs must meet the provincial reregulations (For example, in B.C. they must meet WorkSafeBC G19.30), and individuals must ensure they meet the requirements of the owner of the power system.^{[citation needed]}

Trees in urban landscape settings are often subject to disturbances, whether human or natural, both above and below ground. They may require care to improve their chances of survival following damage from either biotic or abiotic causes. Arborists can provide appropriate solutions, such as pruning trees for health and good structure, for aesthetic reasons, and to permit people to walk under them (a technique often referred to as "crown raising"), or to keep them away from wires, fences, and buildings (a technique referred to as "crown reduction").^[7] Timing and methods of treatment depend on the species of tree and the purpose of the work. To determine the best practices, a thorough knowledge of local species and environments is essential.^{[citation needed]}

There can be a vast difference between the techniques and practices of professional arborists and those of inadequately trained tree workers. Some commonly offered "services" are considered unacceptable by modern arboricultural standards and may seriously damage, disfigure, weaken, or even kill trees. One such example is tree topping, lopping, or "hat-racking", where entire tops of trees or main stems are removed, generally by cross-cutting the main stem(s) or leaders, leaving large unsightly stubs. Trees that manage to survive such treatment are left prone to a spectrum of detrimental effects, including vigorous but weakly attached regrowth, pest susceptibility, pathogen intrusion, and internal decay.^[8]

Pruning should only be done with a specific purpose in mind. Every cut is a wound, and every leaf lost is removal of photosynthetic potential. Proper pruning can be helpful in many ways, but should always be done with the minimum amount of live tissue removed.^[9]

In recent years, research has proven that wound dressings such as paint, tar, or other coverings are unnecessary and may harm trees. The coverings may encourage growth of decay-causing fungi. Proper pruning, by cutting through branches at the right location, can do more to limit decay than wound dressing ^[10]

Chemicals can be applied to trees for insect or disease control through soil application, stem injections, or spraying. Compacted or disturbed soils can be improved in various ways.^{[citation needed]}

Arborists can also assess trees to determine the health, structure, safety, or feasibility within a landscape and in proximity to humans. Modern arboriculture has progressed in technology and sophistication from practices of the past. Many current practices are based on knowledge gained through recent research, including that of Alex Shigo, considered one "father" of modern arboriculture.^[11]

Depending on the jurisdiction, there may be a number of legal issues surrounding the practices of arborists, including boundary issues, public safety issues, "heritage" trees of community value, and "neighbour" issues such as ownership, obstruction of views, impacts of roots crossing boundaries, nuisance problems, disease or insect quarantines, and safety of nearby trees or plants that may be affected.^{[citation needed]}

Arborists are frequently consulted to establish the factual basis of disputes involving trees, or by private property owners seeking to avoid legal liability through the duty of care.^[12] Arborists may be asked to assess the value of a tree^[13] in the process of an insurance claim for trees damaged or destroyed,^[14] or to recover damages resulting from tree theft or vandalism.^[15] In cities with tree preservation orders an arborist's evaluation of tree hazard may be required before a property owner may remove a tree, or to assure the protection of trees in development plans and during construction operations. Carrying out work on protected trees and hedges is illegal without express permission from local authorities,^[16] and can result in legal action including fines.^[17] Homeowners who have entered into contracts with a Homeowner's association (see also Restrictive covenants) may need an arborists' professional opinion of a hazardous condition prior to removing a tree, or may be obligated to assure the protection of the views of neighboring properties prior to planting a tree or in the course of pruning.^[18] Arborists may be consulted in forensic investigations where the evidence of a crime can be determined within the growth rings of a tree, for example. Arborists may be engaged by one member of a dispute in order to identify factual information about trees useful to that member of the dispute, or they can be engaged as an expert witness providing unbiased scientific knowledge in a court case. Homeowners associations seeking to write restrictive covenants, or legislative bodies seeking to write laws involving trees, may seek the counsel of arborists in order to avoid future difficulties.^[19]

Before undertaking works in the UK, arborists have a legal responsibility to survey trees for wildlife, especially bats, which are given particular legal protection. In addition, any tree in the UK can be covered by a tree preservation order and it is illegal to conduct any work on a tree, including deadwooding or pruning, before permission has been sought from the local council.^{[citation needed]}

• Australia Limited, a non-profit organisation, is a national organisation promoting and representing tree workers, arborists, professional tree management and urban forestry throughout Australia and the Asia-Pacific region.^[20]
• The Tree Care Industry Association (formerly the National Arborist Association) is a public and professional non-profit organization for the arboriculture field. It has more than 2,000 member companies representing over a dozen countries. TCIA's Accreditation program certifies that tree care companies that have been inspected and accredited based on adherence to industry standards for performance and safety; maintenance of trained, professional staff; and dedication to ethics and quality in business practices. In addition, they provide safety and educational programs, guidelines for tree service operations, ANSI A300 tree pruning standards, and consumer resources.^{[citation needed]}
• The International Society of Arboriculture, a non-profit organization, maintains a list of ISA Certified Arborists who have passed a written exam and demonstrated a basic level of knowledge in arboriculture.^[21] There are also additional classifications of certified arborists with Certified Arborist/Utility Specialist for those who work near power lines, and Certified Arborist/Municipal Specialist for those who deal mostly with community trees. Other certifications exist for Certified Tree Workers, and the highest level of certification, the Board Certified Master Arborist.^{[citation needed]}
• The American Society of Consulting Arborists is an organization whose membership is exclusive to those with a certain level of industry experience, plus higher educational experience or continuing education; some members may achieve a higher status by fulfilling the requirements to become a Registered Consulting Arborist.^[22] Consulting arborists generally specialize in the areas of ethics, law, land planning and development, and tree valuation, among others. Consulting arborists are often called on for legal testimony and report writing in various instances where a particular authority on trees is necessary for consequent actions.
• In the UK, the professional body representing the sector is the Institute of Chartered Foresters. The trade body representing arborists is the Arboricultural Association. The association maintains a register of consultants who have demonstrated a high level of technical arboricultural knowledge and operate an Approved Contractor scheme. This scheme assesses both the technical competence and business practices of arboricultural contractors.
• The European Arboricultural Council is a European group of multiple arboriculture organizations from various countries.
• Plant Amnesty is a public education and advocacy group, based in Seattle, dedicated to promoting proper pruning methods. Founded in 1987, Plant Amnesty became an international resource for arborists and their clients in the mid-1990s.^[23][24]

The protagonist in Italo Calvino's novel The Baron in the Trees lives life on the ground as a boy and spends the rest of his life swinging from tree to tree in the Italian countryside. As a young man he helps the local fruit farmers by pruning their trees.^{[citation needed]}

Some noteworthy arborists include:

• Francis A. Bartlett – founded The Bartlett Tree Experts Co., the world's leading scientific tree and shrub care company in 1907.
• John Chapman – pioneering U.S. frontier nurseryman and orchardist, commonly known as Johnny Appleseed.
• Canopy Cat Rescue^[25] – rescues domestic cats from tall trees; appears on Treetop Cat Rescue.
• Sebastian Junger – author of Perfect Storm and War. Previous to becoming a journalist, Sebastian was an arborist in Massachusetts.
• Chuck Leavell – two-time recipient of the Georgia Tree Farmer of the Year award, and author of the children's book, The Tree Farmer. In 2006 Leavell was appointed by Governor Sonny Perdue to the Georgia Land Conservation Council. He is also an accomplished jazz pianist and keyboardist for the Rolling Stones.^[26]
• Alex Shigo – considered the father of modern arboriculture.

• 
  An arborist blocking down a section in Victoria, Australia
• 
  Large tree transplant in Townsville, Australia
• 
  An arborist spurless climbing to prune a tree Australia
• 
  An Oregon arborist providing a slideshow presentation about tree care and pruning at a garden show in Portland, Oregon
• 
  A crew of arborists felling a tree in sections at Kallista, Victoria
• 
  Friendship Oak on the campus of Southeastern Louisiana University is hundreds of years old. Like other mature spreading oaks, Friendship Oak is maintained by arborists to prevent the limbs from growing into the ground.
• 
  An arborist pruning a tree near the Statue of Liberty
• 
  An Arborist Tree Trimming In Denver, Colorado

• Chainsaw safety clothing
• Lumberjack
• Master arborist
• Tree shaping

Look up arborist or arboricide in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Tree care is the application of arboricultural methods like pruning, trimming, and felling/thinning^[1] in built environments. Road verge, greenways, backyard and park woody vegetation are at the center of attention for the tree care industry. Landscape architecture and urban forestry^[2][3] also set high demands on professional tree care. High safety standards against the dangers of tree care have helped the industry evolve. Especially felling in space-limited environments poses significant risks: the vicinity of power or telephone lines, insufficient protective gear (against falling dead wood, chainsaw wounds, etc.) and narrow felling zones with endangered nearby buildings, parking cars, etc. The required equipment and experience usually transcends private means and is often considered too costly as a permanent part of the public infrastructure. In singular cases, traditional tools like handsaws may suffice, but large-scale tree care usually calls for heavy machinery like cranes, bucket trucks, harvesters, and woodchippers.

Road side trees are especially prone to abiotic stress by exhaust fumes, toxic road debris, soil compaction, and drought which makes them susceptible to fungal infections and various plant pests^[4] like the spotted lantern fly.^[5] When tree removal is not an option, because of road ecology considerations, the main challenge is to achieve road safety (visibility of road signs, blockage-free lanes, etc.) while maintaining tree health.

While the perceived risk of death by falling trees (a part of the "tree risk" complex) is influenced by media and often hyped (the objective risk has been reported to be close to 1 : 10.000.000, almost as low as death by lightning),^[6] singular events have encouraged a "proactive" stance so that even lightly damaged trees are likely to be removed in urban and public traffic surroundings.^[3] As a tree ages and nears the end of its safe useful life expectancy (SULE),^[7] its perceived amenity value is decreased greatly. A risk assessment normally carried out by local council's arborist to determine the best course of action.^[8] As with all public green spaces, trees in green urban spaces and their careful conservation is sometimes in conflict with aggressive urban development even though it is often understood how urban trees contribute to liveability of suburbs and cities both objectively (reduction of urban heat island effect, etc.) and subjectively.^{[9][10][11][12]} Tree planting programs implemented by a growing number of cities, local councils and organizations is mitigating the losses and in most cases increasing the number of trees in suburbia.^[13] Programs include the planting of 2 trees for every 1 tree removed, while some councils are paying land owners to keep trees instead of removing them for farming or construction.^[14]

The voluntary industry consensus standards developed by TCIA, resulted in the ANSI A300 standard, the generally accepted industry standard for tree care practices including trees, shrubs, and other woody plants.^[15] It includes the following parts:

1. Pruning
2. Soil management
3. Supplemental support systems
4. Lightning protection systems
5. Management
6. Planting and transplanting
7. Integrated vegetation management
8. Root management standard
9. Tree risk assessment
10. Integrated pest management
11. Tree Service

• Tree Care Industry Association
• International Society of Arboriculture
• European Arboricultural Council

• Forest management
• Tree injection
• Tree surgeon
• Tree health

• "News: Expert workshop on Tree Care and Arboriculture standards in Europe". environmental partnership association.
• "Cover Story: State of the Industry". Lawn & Landscape. 2013.
• Arbor Day Foundation - Tree care
• Our City Forest

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Arboriculture (/ˈɑːrbərɪˌkʌltʃər, ɑːrˈbɔːr-/, from Latin: arboris + culture)^[1] is the cultivation, management, and study of individual trees, shrubs, vines, and other perennial woody plants. The science of arboriculture studies how these plants grow and respond to cultural practices and to their environment. The practice of arboriculture includes cultural techniques such as selection, planting, training, fertilization, pest and pathogen control, pruning, shaping, and removal.

A person who practices or studies arboriculture can be termed an arborist or an arboriculturist. A tree surgeon is more typically someone who is trained in the physical maintenance and manipulation of trees and therefore more a part of the arboriculture process rather than an arborist. Risk management, legal issues, and aesthetic considerations have come to play prominent roles in the practice of arboriculture. Businesses often need to hire arboriculturists to complete "tree hazard surveys" and generally manage the trees on-site to fulfill occupational safety and health obligations.^{[citation needed]}

Arboriculture is primarily focused on individual woody plants and trees maintained for permanent landscape and amenity purposes, usually in gardens, parks or other populated settings, by arborists, for the enjoyment, protection, and benefit of people.^{[citation needed]}

Arboricultural matters are also considered to be within the practice of urban forestry yet the clear and separate divisions are not distinct or discreet.^{[citation needed]}

Tree benefits are the economic, ecological, social and aesthetic use, function purpose, or services of a tree (or group of trees), in its situational context in the landscape.

• Erosion control and soil retention
• Improved water infiltration and percolation
• Protection from exposure: windbreak, shade, impact from hail/rainfall
• Air humidification
• Modulates environmental conditions in a given microclimate: shields wind, humidifies, provides shade
• Carbon sequestration and oxygen production

• Attracting pollinators
• Increased biodiversity
• Food for decomposers, consumers, and pollinators
• Soil health: organic matter accumulation from leaf litter and root exudates (symbiotic microbes)
• Ecological habitat

• Increases employment: forestry, education, tourism
• Run-off and flood control (e.g. bioswales, plantings on slopes)
• Aesthetic beauty: parks, gatherings, social events, tourism, senses (fragrance, visual), focal point
• Adds character and prestige to the landscape, creating a "natural" feel
• Climate control (e.g shade): can reduce energy consumption of buildings
• Privacy and protection: from noise, wind
• Cultural benefits: eg. memorials for a loved one
• Medical benefits: eg. Taxus chemotherapy
• Materials: wood for building, paper pulp
• Fodder for livestock
• Property value: trees can increase by 10–20%^{[citation needed][2]}
• Increases the amount of time customers will spend in a mall, strip mall, shopping district^{[citation needed]}

A tree defect is any feature, condition, or deformity of a tree that indicates weak structure or instability that could contribute to tree failure.

Common types of tree defects:

Codominant stems: two or more stems that grow upward from a single point of origin and compete with one another.

• common with decurrent growth habits
• occurs in excurrent trees only after the leader is killed and multiple leaders compete for dominance

Included bark: bark is incorporated in the joint between two limbs, creating a weak attachment

• occurs in branch unions with a high attachment angle (i.e. v-shaped unions)
• common in many columnar/fastigiate growing deciduous trees

Dead, diseased, or broken branches:

• woundwood cannot grow over stubs or dead branches to seal off decay
• symptoms/signs of disease: e.g. oozing through the bark, sunken areas in the bark, and bark with abnormal patterns or colours, stunted new growth, discolouration of the foliage

Cracks

• longitudinal cracks result from interior decay, bark rips/tears, or torsion from wind load
• transverse cracks result from buckled wood, often caused by unnatural loading on branches, such as lion's tailing.
• Seams: bark edges meet at a crack or wound
• Ribs: bulges, indicating interior cracks

Cavity and hollows: sunken or open areas wherein a tree has suffered injury followed by decay. Further indications include: fungal fruiting structures, insect or animal nests.

Lean: a lean of more than 40% from vertical presents a risk of tree failure

Taper: change in diameter over the length of trunks branches and roots

Epicormic branches (water sprouts in canopy or suckers from root system): often grow in response to major damage or excessive pruning

Roots:

• girdling roots compress the trunk, leading to poor trunk taper, and restrict vascular flow
• kinked roots provide poor structural support; the kink is a site of potential root failure
• circling roots occurs when roots encounter obstructions/limitations such as a small tree well or being grown too long in a nursery pot; these cannot provide adequate structural support and are limited in accessing nutrients and water
• healthy soil texture and depth, drainage, water availability, makes for healthy roots